Geography Skills & Techniques - Reading Climate Graphs (Climograph)

(Adapted from http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/geography/geographical_skills/graphs_rev4.shtml)

Climate graphs are a combination of a bar graph and a line graph. 
Temperature is shown on a line graph, with the figures being shown on the right side of the graph. Rainfall is shown by a bar graph, with the figures being shown down the left side of the graph.

The climate graph below shows average annual rainfall and temperature throughout the year for a particular area.

Interpreting climate graphs

In the exam you may be asked to look at the information in the graph and describe the area's climate.

1. Look for patterns in the temperature data
   • Is the temperature the same all year round? If it is different, how many seasons does the location experience?
   • Which season is the warmest? Is it warm (10 to 20°C), hot (20 to 30°C) or very hot (above 30°C)?
   • Which season is the coolest? Is it mild (0 to 10°C), cold (-10 to 0°C) or very cold (below -10°C)?
   • What is the range of temperature? (Subtract the minimum temperature from the maximum temperature).
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2. Look for patterns in the rainfall data
   • Does the rainfall occur all year round?
   • What is the pattern of the rainfall? Check which season(s) is/are drier or wetter than others.
   • What is the total annual rainfall? Add each month's total together to get the annual total.
   • Then put the rainfall and temperature information together - what does it tell you about this area?
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3. Describe the patterns in temperature and rainfall, including how they relate to each other. You now have a description of the climate.
   • Now look again at the climate graph above. What can you deduce about the climate?

Geography Exam Techniques - How You Should Answer The Different Types Of Questions

Hi Everyone!

You will be sitting for your geography examination papers shortly, here are some exam tips that might be able to help all of you :)

UNDERSTANDING THE QUESTIONS

Here are some words that are commonly used in examination questions. Do you know exactly what the questions require you to do?

• Compare / Contrast - identify and write down the things that are the same and are different between the features or places in the question.
• Complete - you might be asked to finish off a diagram, map or graph.
• Define - describe or explain the meaning of something.
• Describe - write down things about what is shown on a map, table or graph. Say what you see in detail and quote the data.
• Discuss - usually requires a longer answer as you are describing and giving reasons or explaining arguments for or against.
• Do you agree - You are being asked to make a choice between the given answers/statement. Make a balanced argument by providing both the 'good' and 'bad' of the story.
• Draw / Annotate - you might be asked to draw a sketch or diagram with labels to explain (e.g. the formation of a feature)
• Explain (Account for) / Justify / Give a reason / Give detailed reasons / Suggest reasons / - give reasons for the location / appearance of a feature/ processes involved in the formation of a phenomenon
• Give your views - you might be asked to say what you think or what another person or group might think.
• Identify - name, locate, recognize or select a particular feature or features from a map, photograph or diagram.
• Locate - write down where a feature or place is.
• Name, state or list - write down accurate details or information.
• Study / Look at - look carefully at a map, diagram, sketch, table and think about what it shows.
• Using map evidence - you must give a 4 figure grid reference or 6 figure grid reference, and / or mention a place, name or feature taken from the map.
• With reference to (or refer to) - examples that you have studied - you need to give detailed and specific information about the case study when explain the reasons for a particular answer.
• With the help of or using the information provided - be sure to use and mention examples from the information (e.g. tables, graphs) in the paper to explain your answer.

How Are the Different Types Of Question Marked? 

There are two different types of questions in terms of the way your exam is marked

• Questions worth 1-3 marks are marked per correct point, so the more correct points you make the higher your mark will be

Example: Describe the climate of the given country [4] 

(To earn the full 4 marks, provide one point/observation for each mark)

•The amount of rainfall received each month is consistently low throughout the year, between 40 to 70mm.
•The annual rainfall is 700mm.
•The mean daily temperature range is 10°C.
•Highest recorded mean daily maximum and minimum temperatures were in July, while the lowest recorded were in January.

• Questions worth 4-8 marks will require longer answers! These answers are marked according to the 'level of response' that you give to the question. The examiner must first decide which level your answer falls into and then award you a mark within this level. If you do not meet the requirements of the higher level, the examiner cannot award you those marks. The higher your level, the higher your mark will be

Level 1: 

• Basic Knowledge of basic information 

• Simple understanding 

• Few links; limited detail; uses a limited range of specialist terms 

• Limited evidence of sentence structure 

• Frequent spelling, punctuation and grammatical errors  

Level 2: 

• Clear Knowledge of accurate information

• Clear understanding

• Answers have some linkages; occasional detail/exemplar; uses some specialist or geographical  terms where appropriate

• Clear evidence of sentence structure

• Some spelling, punctuation and grammatical errors

Level 3: 

• Detailed Knowledge of accurate information appropriately contextualised and/or at correct scale

• Detailed understanding, supported by relevant evidence and exemplars

• Well organised, demonstrating detailed linkages and the interrelationships between factors

• Range of ideas in logical form; uses a range of specialist terms where appropriate

• Well-structured response with effective use of sentences

• Few spelling, punctuation and grammatical errors

 Note: Your answer does not have to be perfect to score full marks. In fact, the mark scheme says that 'a perfect answer is not usually expected, even for full marks'. If you look at how many marks are available for the question this gives you some idea of how much you have to write and what to include. 

For example, you will have to include more detail for a 4 mark question than for a 2 mark question. For 4 mark questions, you will always have to develop/explain each point you make (usually 2) For 6 mark questions, it would be sensible to make 3 relevant points and give 3 good explanations to achieve full marks. 

Don’t include too many points as you will not explain them in enough detail. Use case studies or examples to back up the theory behind your answer. Mention facts, statistics, names and places as this will only show that you have detailed knowledge (level 3). Use words like because, as well as and therefore to highlight you are developing your points fully.

Other General Tips and Advice

• Always try to use geographical words, concepts - e.g. Subduction, Directions (i.e. North, South, East, West), 
• When asked to describe graphs:
mention any changes to the line (rising, falling, level) and how quickly these changes take place (slowly rising, falling quickly, stayed level for some years)
With a Bar or Pie chart compare the size of the different bars or sectors and mention the relative importance of each (e.g. housing takes up 60% of the area)
• Draw large, clearly labelled diagrams when asked to do so
• Spend more time answering questions with more marks, if you are unsure, MOVE ON and come back to the question later!
• When answering evaluative questions (i.e. Explain why... Discuss the advantages of....) Use the P.E.E.L format to structure your answer (i.e. Point, Explanation, Evidence, Link)

Example: Explain two factors that could affect weather in the 2 locations [6]

Latitude (Factor 1)
•Canberra is located at 35.31°S
•Gold Coast is located at 28.02°S

The weather is generally warmer in Gold Coast than at Canberra due to its latitude (Point)  

The can be seen from their latitudes which is 28.02 for Gold Coast and 35.31 for Canberra. (Evidence)
This could be due to the higher angle of incidence at Gold Coast, where the sun’s energy is concentrated over a smaller area, resulting in higher temperatures. (Explanation)
Therefore, because Gold Coast is closer to Equator where there is more concentrated sun energy, it leads to a warmer weather due to high temperatures (Link)

Distance from Sea (Factor 2)
•Canberra is located further inland
•Gold Coast is located near the coast

There is a difference in temperature range between the two locations due to their distance from the sea. (Point)
This can be seen in the figure where Gold Coast is located near to the sea in comparison to Canberra which is further inland. (Evidence)
Due to the maritime effect, the sea gains and loses heat slower than land, therefore temperatures may be cooler in the day and warmer in the night. This can be seen from the small temperature range of 8 °C between the highest and lowest temperature. (Explanation)
As a result of temperature range differences, the weather conditions are relatively constant in Gold Coast as compared to Canberra which fluctuates more. (Link)

Alright, that's all I have to share. 

Best of luck and may the force be with ALL of you ALWAYS!

Variable Weather & Changing Climate KQ1 - Rainfall & Monsoon Winds

Rainfall or Precipitation refers to water in any form that falls from the atmosphere to the surface of the earth.

Precipitation types include

• Hail (balls of ice)
• Snow (white or translucent ice crystals)
• Sleet (mixture of rain and snow)

The main form of precipitation in the tropics (in which Singapore is located in), is rain. It is measured in millimeters (mm) using a rain gauge.

Areas with rainfall above 1,500mm are classified as having high rainfall.

Areas with rainfall below 250mm are classified as having low rainfall.

Rainfall is the result of air instability, which is the tendency of a parcel of air to rise (unstable state). This air parcel is heated, expand and rise as a result of becoming less dense than the surrounding air. 

Two Main Types of Rain

1. Convectional
2. Relief

Convectional Rain (often associated with lightning and thunder and generally lasts only for a short time but brings intense rainfall over an area, Most common in Singapore)

Relief Rain (also known as orographic rain occurs when warm, moist air is forced to rise over landforms such as a mountain range. The side of the mountain where moist, warm air from the sea is blown by the prevailing wind is called the windward side, while the other is called the leeward side which is usually dry as most of the moisture has fallen on the windward side).

Wind travels from an area of high to low pressure. They also also affected by the earth's rotation, also known as the Coriolis Effect. This effect causes the bending or deflection of winds, to the right in the northern hemisphere and left in the southern hemisphere. It is strongest near the north and south poles, while weaker in the tropics (negligent at the Equator). 

Monsoon Winds are regional wind patterns that reverse direction seasonally. This brings about seasonal changes in precipitation in different areas with the occurrence of monsoons, which may lead to wet or dry seasons.

Click on the picture to see the Monsoon Animation and better understand the phenomenon

Monsoon occur in a number of locations around the world, with the major monsoons affecting Asia and Australia. Singapore commonly experiences high rainfall in the month of December because of the north-east monsoon.

North-East Monsoon (10 to 2)

The North-East monsoon takes place between the months of October (10) to February (2) due to a difference in pressure between the northern and southern hemispheres.

• During this period of time, it is summer in the southern hemisphere (forming an area of low pressure in Australia) and winter in the northern hemisphere  (forming an area of high pressure in the Indian sub-continent and Central Asia).
• Dry cold air moves from the Indian sub-continent and Central Asia to Australia as the north-west monsoon winds. 
• These winds change direction to north-east as it crosses the Equator, where the Coriolis effect deflects the winds to the left. 
• These winds warm up, picks up moisture as it travels across the Indian Ocean and brings heavy rain to Australia.

South-West Monsoon (6 to 9)

The South-West monsoon takes place between June (6) to September (9) due to a difference in pressure between the northern and southern hemisphere.

• During this period of time, it is summer in the northern hemisphere (forming an area of low pressure in the Indian sub-continent and Central Asia) and winter in the southern hemisphere (forming an area of high pressure in Australia).
• Dry cold air moves from Australia to the Indian sub-continent as the south-east monsoon winds. 
• These winds change direction to south-west as it crosses the Equator, where the Coriolis effect deflects the winds to the right. 
• These winds warm up, picks up moisture as it travels across the Indian Ocean and brings heavy rain to the Indian sub-continent.

Variable Weather & Changing Climate KQ1 - Why Do Different Places Experience Different Weather and Climate?

What is the difference?

Weather refers to the condition of the atmosphere at a particular place and time.

Climate is the average condition of the atmosphere of a specific place over a long period of time, usually over 30 years.

We can describe weather with the six following elements

1. Temperature - degree of hotness or coldness of a place
2. Relative Humidity - amount of water vapour the air can hold at a given temperature
3. Clouds - visible masses of water droplets or ice crystals which are suspended in the atmosphere
4. Rainfall - precipitation or water that falls from the atmosphere down to the surface of the earth
5. Air Pressure - force exerted on an unit area of earth's surface by a column of air
6. Wind - movement of air from an area of high to low pressure

Temperature is determined by the amount of energy from the sun which reaches the earth. Most of the sun's energy travels through the atmosphere and is absorbed by the earth's surface, causing it warm up and heats up the atmosphere (Refer to the diagram below)

Temperature is regularly measured and recorded it is measured in degrees Celsius (°C) or degree Fahrenheit (°F). It is measured using a thermometer. Usually, we usually record temperatures because it allows us to determine weather patterns of a place. 

We can do this by calculating the

• Mean Daily Temperature - Sum of hourly temperatures divided by 24 hours
• Mean Monthly Temperature - Average daily temperatures recorded in a month
• Mean Annual Temperature - Average temperature recorded in a year
• Temperature Range - Difference between maximum and minimum temperature
• Diurnal Temperature Range - Difference between maximum and minimum temperatures in a day
• Annual Temperature Range - Difference between maximum and minimum mean monthly temperatures recorded in a year

In the study of weather, anything above 20°C is considered high temperature and low temperature as below 10°C.

Why Different Places Experience Different Temperatures?

Temperatures vary across the earth. Some places are colder while others are warmer.

Factors that cause variations include

• Latitude - distance of any point of on earth measured north or south from the Equator
• Altitude - height of a place in relation to the sea level
• Distance from the Sea - how near or far a place is from the sea which results in a difference between the rate of heating and cooling
• Cloud Cover - extent of the sky covered by clouds

*I have covered the first two factors in the previous posts, click on it to redirect the page to the post :)

Distance from the Sea

Places near the sea experience smaller annual temperature range due to the Maritime Effect - It is the effect that large ocean bodies have on the climate of coastal areas. The sea heats up and cools down slower than land, causing it to have a smaller annual temperature range. 

During summer, the air over the sea is cooler than the air over the land. The cooler air over the sea helps lower the temperatures of coastal areas, therefore making the climate of the coastal places cooler than areas further inland.

Coastal areas experience cooler summers and warmer winters as a result of the maritime effect. 

Continental Effect on the other hand, refers to the effect that continental surfaces have on the climate of inland areas, Land heats up and cools down quicker than the sea. Therefore resulting in larger annual temperature range, and inland areas experiencing warmer summers and cooler winters 

Cloud Cover

The amount of cloud cover influences the temperatures on the earth's surface in the day and night. More cloud cover will result in a smaller difference between day and night temperatures, while less cloud cover will result in a larger difference between day and night temperatures - diurnal range. 

In the day, cloud cover also reduces the amount of direct sunlight an area receives, resulting in cooling. While at night, it traps longwave radiation radiated from the earth's surface which results in warming. 

Living with Tectonic Hazards KQ3 - How Do People Prepare For and Respond to Earthquakes?

Preparedness Measures 

Even though people are not able to prevent earthquakes and other tectonic hazards from happening, they can implement measures to prepare themselves to cope with the impacts of the earthquakes. This reduces the extent of damage and allow populations to survive an earthquake.



Some of this preparedness measures include (B.E.L.T)

• Building and Infrastructure Development - building and reinforcing infrastructures that are resistant and able to withstand potential earthquakes (e.g. Taipei 101, Taiwan)
• Emergency Drills - getting people to be familiar with procedures in the event of an earthquake
• Land Use Regulations - implementing rules and guidelines to restrict developments in earthquake prone areas
• Technology - monitoring and warning systems to warn populations

Although these preparedness measures may prepare people and help them mitigate the impacts of the earthquakes, there may be limitations (M.A.C) to reduce the effectiveness of these measures. Some of which includes

• Manpower - to construct and/or reinforce building to become earthquake-resistant, it requires specialists such as engineers. In addition, the enforcement of rules and regulations will require more law enforcement officers (i.e. government agencies, police etc)
• Adherence to Rules and Regulations -  uncooperative individuals or companies may not follow the rules and regulations implemented by the government. People may also not treat the emergency preparedness drills seriously and follow the procedures set.
• Costs - construction and maintenance of buildings and infrastructure that are earthquake-resistant may be expensive. Some areas may also be privately owned, therefore governments may have to purchase and acquire land to compensate these owners in order to move them out. Acquiring and building of advanced monitoring technology may be too expensive especially for lower-developed countries

In the event of an earthquake, there will be two levels of responses  by the people

1. Short-term (i.e. responses that occur immediately after the event and last for weeks) - search and rescue survivors, providing them with basic necessities such as food, shelter and water.
2. Long-term (i.e. responses that stretch over months and years) - rebuilding the region and preparing for future earthquake events to reduce extent of damage (i.e. preparedness measures)

Living with Tectonic Hazards KQ2 - Phenomena Found At Plate Boundaries and How They Are Formed

Phenomena which are associated with plate movements include earthquakes, tsunamis and volcanic eruptions.

Earthquakes

Picture showing a magnitude 6.4 earthquake that shook Taiwan

An earthquake is a vibration in the earth's crust caused by the sudden release of stored energy in the rocks found along fault lines. They occur when there is plate movement along plate boundaries, which cause the slow-build up of stress on the rocks found on either side of the fault.

• When the rocks can no longer withstand the increasing stress, they suddenly slip and release energy in the form of seismic waves which radiate from a focal point (i.e. focus). 
• The amount of energy released is measured using the Richter Scale and described as the magnitude of an earthquake.
• The point on the earth's surface directly above the focus is also known as the epicentre. 

After an earthquake event, the stress from the ground may cause many smaller earthquakes called aftershocks to occur along the fault lines. These series of aftershocks may occur for several months after the initial earthquake, with some of them being nearly as powerful as the original earthquake.

Recent example of major earthquake events include the 9.0 magnitude in 2011 - Tohoku, Japan, with a death toll of 28,000 people.

The extent of damage caused by an earthquake may vary based on population density of an area, level of preparedness, distance from the epicentre, time of occurrence and type of soil,

Test Your Knowledge: What are some countries that frequently experience earthquake events? Why?

Tsunamis 

Some of the hazards commonly associated with an earthquake is a tsunami. Tsunami refers to an unusually large sea wave which may be formed by

• Movement of sea floor during a large earthquake at the subduction zones
• Underwater landslide
• Landslide above sea level due to earthquakes or volcanic eruptions which causes large amount of materials to plunge into water

This causes loss of lives, disruption of services, fires, landslides, destruction of properties and properties (e.g. tsunami in Banda Aceh, Indonesia caused by earthquake in the Indian Ocean). 

Watch the video below to get a better understanding on how tsunamis are formed and its threats.

Volcanic Eruptions

Volcanic eruptions can occur on land or on the sea floor. They occur depending on whether a volcano is active, dormant or extinct.

• Active - a volcano that is currently erupting or expected to erupt in the future
• Dormant - a volcano that is currently inactive but may erupt in the near future
• Extinct - a volcano without current seismic activity and has no evidence of eruptions for the past thousand years. 

Some of the risks of living near volcanic areas include

• Destruction of properties and infrastructure caused by volcanic materials (i.e. lava, pyroclasts, lahar)
• Disruption of services (i.e. aircrafts and flight services)
• Landslides due to structural collapse of a volcanic cone
• Environmental pollution from ash particles ejected during the volcanic eruption
• Effects on weather due to release of gases such sulphur dioxide reflect sun's energy back into space and temporarily cools the earth ranging from a few months to years. 

Why Do People Still Live Near Volcanic Areas Since There Are Risks?

Although there are many risks in living near volcanic areas,  many people continue to live there due to its numerous benefits and opportunities. These includes

• Fertile volcanic soil for agriculture due to the breaking down (weathering) of volcanic materials to enrich the soil, making it favourable for agriculture
• Precious stones and minerals which can be used for commercial or building and construction purposes
• Tourism
• Geothermal energy

People may choose to continue living in areas prone to tectonic activity for a variety of reasons, considering the risks and opportunities. They cannot prevent natural hazards but live in harmony with nature through mitigation and preparedness measures which will be discussed in the next post.